Formal assessment & Austin (1991) Essay Example for Free

Formal assessment Austin (1991) Essay Formal assessment has been described by Austin (1991) as a process of â€Å"gathering information and utilization of that that information for individual and institutional improvement (p. 2). The information gathered may include the students’ weakness and strengths in certain subjects’ areas. Emphasis in formal assessments is focused on the results of a standardized evaluation tests that are administered under strict and regulated environments. However, that information is very important for student since they are able to know how well they are progressing and measures to undertake to deal with their weaknesses. Assessment forms an important component of teaching and leaning that has a greater impact on student learning (Saliu 271). Saliu goes on to demonstrate that assessment should be able to measure the criterion for which it was intended while maintaining consistence at the same time (271). This paper will discuss major components of formal learning which include reasons for assessing and administering tests to students, relevant formal assessments that may be administered, advantages and disadvantages of each particular assessment. I will however, put forward some recommendations on what the teacher and institution needs to pay attention to in order to achieve the objectives of formal assessment. Reasons for assessing and administering testing to students The main reason for administering assessment is to monitor the student’s progress in learning as compared to other students of the same age or level (Wilson and Scalise 11). Assessments results are useful in screening and making decision on the level of qualifications to base career growth activities. The results are very useful to the curriculum developers and syllabus preparation by both governments and institutions (Council of Europe 6). Results provide a good guide for program or course evaluation since it presents the information in form of scores. The results obtained are used by local and federal departments’ in policy formulation and implementation. Formal assessment should be viewed as a tool that can be used to measure the level at which students receives information from the teacher rather than just giving of grades 1 to 5 (Saliu 272). Moreover, formal test can give valuable information regarding a student progress in mastering the subject content of a particular course at certain levels of study. The results offers a good insight to the teacher when organizing the materials and content for students to lean at comfortable pace yet achieving at their best level possible (Saliu 272). Clearly delimited results are very useful in facilitating students to focus their time and energy towards self improvement . The information obtained from standard test is very useful in deciding a student’s career interests and future goals. The assessment report should be able to reflect a student’s goals and give a clear indication on which areas need help. Motivation is an affective factor in formal assessment which propels the teacher to be devoted towards helping students to learn (Wiggins 38). The teacher gets encouraged after seen students pass well in the subject or course given to students by that teacher (Fitzpatrick and Michael 101). Students get to care about their learning and seek to improve on their weaker areas after the results are released. When a teacher is encouraging and appears to be responsive to students’ feeling, students respond by becoming very constructive and enthusiastic towards achieving higher scores (Weeden, Winter and Broadfoot 4). The information obtained from formal assessments may guide the teacher to group the students in a way that they can help each other hence creating a class relationship that supports learning process. There is a sense of self acceptance created by students admitting difficulties. This forms a healthy atmosphere for learning from peers (Saliu 273). Grading in formal assessments provide documented information of what a particular student learnt which is useful in job application and academic advancement admissions (Saliu 273). Despite being crucial widely applied by all leaning institutions, grading has several shortcomings which have been put forward by critics. An example of critics includes Wilson and Scalise (2006) held a view that grading does not have a match with the effort students put in answering examination questions. The ultimate grading does not allow the feedback by the students since it denies them the opportunity to review their work after a formal examination. Moreover, students do not get useful comments upon which they can build future progress on their work- those comments are destroyed with their poor grades (Weeden, Winter and Broadfoot 6). When feedbacks finally are given by the examiners it is either very shallow for instant a single line comment or so late since students may have moved to another grade. Evaluation of the learner’s performance has been difficult for instance marking open-ended questions in standard exam papers (Wilson and Scalise 11). Since individual needs of students cannot be met fully by teachers, limited opportunities for the learner’s growth to realize quality results dominate. To make it worse, inability of all pupils to produce good hand written work hence true reflection in scores limit the learners capacity to acquire more knowledge and to develop deeper understanding of the subject involved. These make it difficult for the pupils to be plausibly and effectively answer or tackle examination questions (Weeden, Winter and Broadfoot 8). No effective follow-up can be done by students who might be interested in enhancing their academic performance (Wilson and Scalise 11). Grading in formal assessment has failed to accurately give students’ strength and weakness to the teacher since it does not give adequate time. Nevertheless, it is not flexible both in terms of content to be tested and level of ability of each student (Weeden, Winter and Broadfoot 12). If we consider a grade of â€Å"2† in philosophy of education course awarded, it will only say that a student learned a great deal of the information but it will no show what content was or was not mastered (Wilson and Scalise 12) Teachers form the majority of assessors of students’ learning for formal assessments. Students can also test their work and test that of their peers and provide an immediate feedback for improvement. The test can be administered by other external examiners such as Standard Aptitude Tests (SAT) (Council of Europe 8). Assessment may be administered at any time of student leaning but it has to be regulated if its purpose is to achieve a defined set standard. The nature of an assessment is determined by the type of cohort of students and upon the need for assessing. The content of what to asses should entirely be guided by the desired end results and the application of those results (Weeden, Winter and Broadfoot 5). Pros and cons of deferent forms formal assessment Formal assessment may take different dimensions according to where it is administered and the target group. Tests may be in form of standard set examinations which are mainly norm-referenced. Formal assessment may also include examinations designed locally by a faculty to offer an objective or subjective assessment (Council of Europe 9). Standardized exams are administered to a specific group which is entirely structured in a multiple-choice question (objective) or descriptive questions (subjective) in one subject area. The results are compared with a set standard (reference). It is applied to students in a given program, course or a level. The main advantage of standard set examination is that it can be adopted view quickly and its implementation is quite easy. It reduces the faculty time requirements in tools design, development and grading (Council of Europe 9). Norm-referenced assessment gives objective scores which provides for generalizations of the results with other student in other places or times. It provides a reference group that is required by the faculty or the testing body. Another benefit of standard test is its application by state or national standards exist for a given discipline or profession such as accountancy, medicine among others (Saliu 273). May be beneficial or required in instances where state or national standards exist for the discipline or profession. It can be applied in comparing the levels of knowledge across several institutions (Astin 3). There are several shortcomings that are associated with this form of assessment. One of the major disadvantages of standard tests according to Wilson and Scalise is that, it has a limit of what it can measure in during testing time (636). It is a culprit of the elimination of the proper process of learning by not reflecting what a student has actually learnt in a given program or course. It may not be able to completely evaluate a particular objective of an entire course (Council of Europe 9). Since most standardized tests are done at the end of a course or program, they fail to provide relevant feedback to both the teacher and the student which would otherwise be used to motivate the student learning. The tests can neither determine a student’s progress on a daily basis nor the achievements in varying periods (Hart 17). They cannot also effectively evaluate the knowledge of a specific course content area which keeps on changing such as social sciences. Another demerit of standardized achievement tests arises due to the administration of multiple-choice tests which pose a grater potential error of guessing the correct answer. (Saliu 243). It only provides a summary evaluation of few parts of whole course. The outcomes may not have direct deductions for course improvement or that of an individual student’s advancement. The results are highly liable to misinterpretation by the teacher or other interested parties such as admitting institutions and employers. Since majority of these tests are commercialized someone (student or program) have to pay to obtain them. When pressure is so much pressed on the passing the tests, the teacher may be forced to teach to the test and not the development of the student skills (Council of Europe 9). A single test is not perfect in providing enough information that ensures a complete assessment. Different tests on a particular subject at deferent times provide almost different information on a student. Locally developed exams can be beneficial since its content and mode is inclined to specific objectives and students’ features of the course or program (Wiggins 37). It can establish specified criteria for measuring performance associated with to curriculum. It can be useful in the development of relevant process of learning of particular group of students. A more localized grading system by faculty can provided a speedy feedback mechanism for teaching betterment. The teacher will have a greater control over the analysis and use of the results in improving students leaning processes and course materials (Wiggins 38). However, locally developed tests require a substantial coordination more so throughout the phases of design and development (Fitzpatrick and Michael 101). It may not provide a basis for cross-institutional comparisons for students in same level of study. These particular tests are time consuming on side of the teacher since they require a lot of attention and effort in designing and administering. In order to provide validity and reliability in these tests an expert may be required expertise in accurate measurement (Council of Europe 11). It may not provide the element associated with the external comparison in relation to other institutions offering similar course or program. Performance appraisals are another form of formal assessments that can be administered to measure competency of acquired skills in a real world situation (Burke 29). They are set standards that seek to evaluate students in a specific class or level (Hart 74). They are credited to providing a relatively direct measure of what has been learned rather than taught in a program or course (Ryan 290). They are mostly preferred to other methods of measuring since they are able to evaluate the application skills learnt in specific settings. They are in tandem with aims of professional training programs and fields which have well specified skill development programs (Ryan 290). Nevertheless, performance appraisals have their share of limitations which include high costs associated with effort and time consumption. Their grading are mostly more subjective than other formal assessments (Fitzpatrick and Michael 118). The sample of performance appraised might not as well be the typical of the student since it might have been triggered by the presence of appraiser. An aptitude test forms yet another important form of formal assessment. An aptitude test has the advantage of measuring the level of knowledge that a student already possess before entering a grade level or a program (Fitzpatrick and Michael 118). This provides the teacher with prior information on the likelihood of a students degree of performance and success in the class. It will determine the information which a student already has compared to set norms. This will further illustrate the level of learning for a particular student which comes in handy when designing individualized instructions (Fitzpatrick and Michael 118). The teacher will have no difficulties in giving advanced instruction for those students that are gifted while at the same time giving a remedial assistance to those who need help. Since modern education is taking learner-centered approach, results of aptitude test provide relevant information that can teachers use to group students for effective cognitive learning. The results are applied in determining when a student develops a learning disability (Council of Europe 12). Aptitude tests face some challenges and limitations that are usual to test. They are limited to measuring students’ capacity to learn new projects and accomplishments. The results do not reflect on the skills or knowledge that students have had no previous training (Fitzpatrick and Michael 118). Since information obtained from an aptitude test gives skills and knowledge students had already acquired in past, it fails to guide the teacher on the application of future instruction. Teacher involvement in formal assessment Recommendations for reducing the shortcoming of formal assessments lie heavily on the teacher and the entire institution involvement in setting exam questions and administration of the examinations. The teacher should choose a test very carefully that will match with the requirements of a course or a program (Council of Europe 28). The teacher should review information on previous sample of performances to ensure the test’s reliability and validity from test publishers. The faculty should engage experts to review the previous summary reports of similar exam results in creating a more updated report for the faculty (Fitzpatrick and Michael 118). The teacher is not supposed to teach to exam otherwise the results would be compromised. The instructor or teacher should be involved in grading systems that focus more emphasis on the feed forward. The institutions should make sure that standardized tests are marked and the papers that can be returned are done in time increase the feedback flow. The grading system should be focused on the offering a true picture of what has been mastered and what has not fully mastered. There should be model answers drawn from others student solutions to provide those who have failed with a way of what was expected of them (Saliu 274). A syndicate with other institutions which have similar objectives in testing can be formed to reduce the costs of developing instruments and to provide an element of externality. The exams department should incorporate outside experts to provide relevant input for development and grading system (Fitzpatrick and Michael 118). In order to reduce the shortcomings associated with performance appraisals training for appraisers should be provided so that they are able to stick to specified criteria (Wiggins 38). It is imperative to alter criteria till acceptable consistency of measurement is reached for testing in multiple situations. Since the result of performance appraisal cannot be used alone to grade a student, Ryan (1994) suggested that results should be cross-validated with other measures of performance (290). Formal assessment includes undertaking fixed, regulated and standardized tests. Grading forms a major part of measurement for mastery of content. Although grading in standard tests is a norm accepted everywhere, it its shortcomings. There are several reasons for formal assessment and standard testing which include monitoring students’ progress, comparing the results with peer; it also provides a measure of level of student knowledge. When the assessment is done appropriately, it can be a source of both the student and teacher motivation. It can create trust among the students and teacher. The component of grading has been an issue of hated debate due to its inadequacy to address all areas of students’ learning. Grades are issued but they cannot be rectified since the doors are closed immediately after results are released. Standard tests, locally developed tests, aptitude tests and performance appraisal are major shapes taken by formal assessment. Although formal assessment provides a standard measure for evaluation of learning among students of a particular cohort or group, it fails to give comprehensive ability of a student. Works Cited Astin, Alexander W. Assessment for Excellence: The Philosophy and Practice of Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education. Portsmouth: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1991. Burke, Kay, ed. Authentic Assessment: A Collection. Illinois: Skylight Training and Publishing, Inc. , 1992. Council of Europe. Common European Framework of Reference fo Languages: Learning Teaching, Assesment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. , 2001. Fitzpatrick, Jody L. and Morris Michael. Current and Emerging Ethical Challenges in Evaluation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1999. Hart, Diane. Authentic Assessment: A Handbook for Educators. . New York: Addison-Wesley, 1994. Ryan, Alan G. Towards Authentic Assessment in Science via STS. Bulletin of Science, Technology Society (1994): 290. Saliu, Sokol. Constrained Subjective Assessment of Student Learning. Journal of Science Education and Technology (2005): 271-284. Weeden, Paul, Jan Winter and Patricia Broadfoot. Assessment. New York: Routledge, 2002. Wiggins, Grant. The Case for Authentic Assessment. ERIC Digest (1990). Wilson, Mark and Kathleen Scalise. Assessment to Improve Learning in Higher Education: The BEAR Assessment System. Higher Education (2006): 635-663.

Symptoms and Treatment of Parkinsons Disease

Symptoms and Treatment of Parkinsons Disease Parkinson’s disease Parkinson’s disease is a progressive neurologic disorder affecting the brain centers that are responsible for control and regulation of movement. It is characterized by bradykinesia (slowness of movement), tremor, and muscle stiffness or rigidity (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). The major lesion appears to result in a loss of pigmented neurons, particularly those in the substantia nigra of the brain. The substantia nigra is a collection of midbrain nuclei that project fibers to the corpus striatum. One of the major neurotransmitters in this area of the brain, and in other parts of the central nervous system, is dopamine, which has an important inhibiting function in the central control of movement (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Although dopamine normally exists in high concentration in certain parts of the brain, in Parkinson’s disease it is depleted in the substania nigra and the corpus striatum. Depletion of dopamine levels in the basal ganglia is associated with bradykinesia, rigidity, and tremors (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Regional cerebral blood flow is reduced in patients with Parkinson’s disease, and there is a high prevalence of dementia. Biochemical and pathologic data suggest that demented patients with Parkinson’s disease may have coexistent Alzheimer’s disease (Connelly Fox, 2012). In the majority of patients, the cause of the disease is unknown. Arteriosclerotic Parkinsonism is seen more frequently in older age groups. It may follow encephalitis, poisoning, or toxicity (manganese, carbon monoxide), or hypoxia, or may be drug induced. The disease most frequently attacks persons in their fifties and sixties and is the second most common neurologic disorder of the elderly (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). The clinical manifestations of Parkinson’s disease are impaired movement, muscle rigidity, tremor, muscle weakness, and loss of postural reflexes. Early signs include a stiffening of the extremities and a wax-like rigidity in the performance of all movements. The patient has difficulty in initiating, maintaining, and performing motor activities, and experiences some delay in carrying out normal activity (Kofman). As the disease progresses, the tremor begins, frequently in one hand and arm, then the other, and later in the head, although the tremor may remain unilateral. The tremor is characteristic: it is a slow, turning motion (pronation-supination) of the forearm and the hand, and motion of the thumb against the fingers as if rolling a pill between the fingers. It increases when the patient is concentrating or feels anxious (Connelly Fox, 2012). Other characteristics of the disease affect the face, stature, and gait. There is loss of normal arm swing. Eventually, the rigid extremities become weaker. Since there is limited movement in the muscles, the face has so little expression that it is said to be masklike (with infrequency of blinking), a feature that can be recognized at a glance (Connelly Fox, 2012). There is a loss of postural reflexes, and the patient stands with head bent forward and walks as if in danger of falling forward. Difficulty in pivoting and loss of balance may lead to frequent falls (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Frequently, these patients show signs of depression, and it has not been established whether the depression is a reaction to the disorder or related to a biochemical abnormality. Mental manifestations may appear in the form of cognitive, perceptual, and memory deficits. A number of psychiatric manifestations (personality changes, psychosis, dementia, confusion) are particularly common among the elderly (Kofman). Complications from immobility (pneumonia, urinary tract infection) and the consequences of falls and accidents are major causes of death (Kofman). Early diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease can be difficult, as the patient can rarely pinpoint when symptoms started. Often someone close to the patient notices a change such as stooped posture, stiff arm, a slight limp, or tremor. Handwriting changes may be an early diagnostic clue. The diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease can usually be made with certainty when there is evidence of tremor, rigidity, and bradykinesia (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). The results of the patient’s history and neurological examination are carefully evaluated. Without treatment Parkinson’s disease progresses over ten to fifteen years to a rigid, akinetic state in which patients are incapable of caring for themselves (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). The availability of effective pharmacological treatment has altered the prognosis of Parkinson’s disease; in most cases, functional mobility can be maintained for many years. Life expectancy of adequately treated patients is increased substantially (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). The presence of dysphagia is associated with shorter survival times. Motor impairment of the muscles in the throat impairs swallowing and poses a risk for aspiration pneumonia. Other complications of Parkinson’s disease include sleep disorders, sexual dysfunction, bowel and bladder complications, and sensory problems, such as the loss of smell (Kofman). There is no cure for Parkinson’s disease. Treatment mainly relies on replacing dopamine with focus on controlling symptoms and improving quality of life (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Because Parkinson’s disease symptoms are due to a deficiency of the brain chemical dopamine, the brain drug treatment help increase dopamine levels in the brain. Levodopa, usually in combination with carbidopa, is the standard drug treatment (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). For patients who do not respond to levodopa, dopamine agonists may be prescribed. Physical therapy is an important part of Parkinson’s disease treatment. Rehabilitation can help improve balance, mobility, speech and functional abilities. No treatment method has been proven to change the course of the disease. For early disease, with little or no impairment, drug therapy may not be necessary (Kofman). There is no cure for Parkinson’s disease, but medications, physical therapy, and surgical interventions can help control symptoms and improve the quality of life (Connelly Fox, 2012). The goals of treatment are to relieve disabilities and balance the problems of the disease with the side effects of the medications. A number of issues must be considered in choosing a medication for treatment. These include the effectiveness of the medication, the side effects of the medication, and the loss of effectiveness over time (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Levodopa (L-dopa) has been used for years and is the gold standard for treatment. L-dopa increases brain levels of dopamine. It is probably the most effective drug for controlling symptoms and is used in all phases of the disease. The standard preparations, Sinemet and Atamet, combine levodopa with carbidopa, a drug that slows the breakdown of levodopa. Levodopa is better at improving motor problems than dopamine agonists but increases the risk of involuntary movements. Effectiveness tends to decrease after four to five years of use (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Dopamine agonists’ drugs mimic dopamine to stimulate the dopamine system in the brain. The drugs included are pramipexole (Mirapex), ropinirole (Requip), bromocriptine (Parlodel), and rotigotine (Neupro) (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Monoamine oxidase B inhibitors may have some mild benefits in initial therapy; they include selegiline (Eldepryl) and rasagiline (Azilect), and they slow the breakdown of dopamine that occurs naturally in the brain and dopamine produced by levodopa (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Entacapone (comtan) is a catechol-o-methyl transferase (COMT) inhibitor that helps to prolong the effects of levodopa by blocking an enzyme that breaks down dopamine (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Medications to treat other symptoms associated with Parkinson’s disease include antidepressants. Tricyclic’s, particularly Amitriptyline (Elavil), studies indicate that the use of SSRIs may worsen symptoms. Anti-psychotics include clozapine and quetiapine help with psychotic symptoms seen with Parkinson’s disease (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). The cholinesterase inhibitor drugs donepezil (Aricept) and rivastigmine (Exelon) are used to treat Alzheimer’s disease and are sometimes used for Parkinson’s disease. The benefits are small and may not be noticed. Daytime sleepiness and fatigue may be treated with modafinil (Provigil) a drug used to treat narcolepsy or methylphenidate (Ritalin) may be considered for fatigue. Glycopyrrolate, scopolamine, and injections of botulinum toxin may be used to relieve drooling symptoms (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Advanced Parkinson’s disease poses challenges for the patient and caregivers. Eventually, symptoms such as stooped posture, freezing, and speech difficulties may no longer respond to drug therapy. Surgery (deep brain stimulation) may be considered. Patients become increasingly dependent on others for care and require assistance with daily tasks. The goal of treatment for advanced Parkinson’s disease should be on providing safety, comfort, and quality of life (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). The toxic effects of Levodopa with carbidopa are considerable. Dyskinesia, the ability to control muscles, can take many forms, most often uncontrolled flailing of the arms and legs or chorea, rapid and repetitive motions that can affect the limbs, face, tongue, mouth, and neck (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Hypotension is a common problem during the first few weeks of therapy. Cardiac arrhythmias and gastrointestinal difficulties are common, with the potential of gastric bleeding. Levodopa can cause disturbances in breathing function, but may benefit patients with upper airway obstructions. Hair loss and mental and psychiatric side effects including confusion, extreme emotional states, especially anxiety, vivid dreams, visual and auditory hallucinations, sleepiness, and effects on learning are other side effects of levodopa (Connelly Fox, 2012). Levodopa causes fewer psychiatric side effects than other drugs including anticholinergics, selegiline, amantadine, and dopamine ago nists. Psychiatric side effects often occur at night, therefore, some doctors recommend reducing the evening dose (Connelly Fox, 2012). Monoamine Oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibitors block monoamine oxidase B, an enzyme that degrades dopamine. Selegiline was commonly used in early onset disease in combination with L-dopa for maintenance (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Concerns of the significant side effects have been raised. Azilect, a newer MAO-B Inhibitor, is used alone during early stage Parkinson’s disease and in combination with L-dopa for moderate to advanced Parkinson’s disease. Side effects of MAO-B inhibitors include orthostatic hypotension, hypertension if combined with drugs that increase serotonin levels, such as many antidepressants (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). A dangerous increase in blood pressure may occur if patients eat foods rich in the amino acid tyramine, while taking selegiline or rasagiline, and for two weeks after stopping the medications. Patients should avoid foods such as aged cheeses, processed lunch meats, pickled herring, yeast extracts, aged red wine, draft beers, sa uerkraut, and soy sauce (Connelly Fox, 2012). Dopamine agonists stimulate dopamine receptors in the substantia nigra. Dopamine agonists are effective in delaying motor complications during the first years of treatment (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Newer dopamine agonists, Mirapex (pramipexole) and Requip (ropinirol) are the most commonly prescribed. Mirapex appears to work better and have fewer side effects than requip. Side effects include nausea, vomiting, constipation, headache, nasal congestion, nightmares, hallucinations, and psychosis. Bromocriptine is the only ergot dopamine agonist approved for treatment in the US (Connelly Fox, 2012). Apomorphine is a dopamine agonist used as a rescue drug in people having on-off effects severe enough to require going off L-dopa for a few days. Because it causes severe nausea and vomiting, it must be taken with an anti-emetic. Rotigotine (Neupro) is a once daily transdermal patch to treat early and advanced stage Parkinson’s disease (Connelly Fox, 2012). Catechol-O- Methyl Transferase Inhibitors (COMT Inhibitors) increase concentrations of existing dopamine in the brain. Entacapone (Comtan, Stalevo) is the current standard COMT inhibitor. It improves motor fluctuations related to weaning off effects. The side effects include involuntary muscle movement, confusion, hallucinations, nausea, vomiting, insomnia, headache, urinary retention, cramps, diarrhea, less common constipation, susceptibility to respiratory infection, sweating and dry mouth (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). A major concern is reports of death from liver damage in patients taking tolcapone (Tasmar) and is recommended only for patients unable to tolerate other drugs. Entacapone does not appear to have the same effects on the liver and does not require the same monitoring (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Anticholinergic drugs were the first used in the treatment for Parkinson’s disease. They are used only for control of tremors in early stages (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Side effects are dry mouth, nausea, urinary retention, blurred vision, and constipation. They can increase heart rate and constipation. They may cause mental problems including memory loss, confusion, and hallucinations (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Amantadine stimulates the release of dopamine and may be used with early mild symptoms. Side effects include swollen ankles, and mottled skin, visual hallucinations. Overdose can cause serious and life-threatening toxicity (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). References Brunton, L., Chabner, B., Knollman, B. (2011). Goodman Gilmans: The pharmacological basis of therapeutics (12 ed.). McGraw-Hill. Connelly, B., Fox, S. (2012, December). Drug treatments for the neuropsychiatric complications of Parkinsons disease. Retrieved from Medscape.com: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticles/777166 Katzung, B., Mastes, S., Trevor, A. (2012). Basic clinical pharmacology (12 ed.). McGraw-Hill. Kofman, O. (n.d.). Complications of therapy in Parkinsons disease. CKP-MFC, 12, 87-91. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc2153537

Impacts of the Protected Disclosures Act 2000 on Nurses

Impacts of the Protected Disclosures Act 2000 on Nurses This essay will explore the Protected Disclosures Act, 2000, specifically how it impacts nurses. Aligning the Act with the Code of Conduct will show its importance to nursing overall. The Act will be explained in terms of general content, and purpose including a brief background to serve as a rationale. The essay will touch on moral context, the role of the Ombudsmen, explore how the Act became legislation drawing on Neil Pugmires story to illustrate, and finally provide an example of the utility of the Act in an everyday scenario. Originally the essay had planned to explore a contrast of past versus future uses of the Act, however, recent research has been difficult to find in a New Zealand health context, possibly due to the privacy constraints and protections utilised within the Act. The Code of Conduct has been provided by the Nursing Council of New Zealand to create a framework for nurses to work within, while ensuring health professionals are held accountable to a certain standard of care. Medical professional accountability is important in maintaining standards and fostering trust in the profession; to be accountable is to be responsible (Wallis, 2013). Key principles of the Code of Conduct include respecting privacy and confidentiality, working in partnership with patients, working respectfully with colleagues to ensure patients receive the best possible care, acting with integrity to justify the trust given to nurses, and to maintain public trust and confidence in the nursing profession (Nursing Council of New Zealand, 2012). The Protected Disclosures Act, 2000, provides a safety net, a forum and set of processes for circumstances when nurses or practitioners whom we may work alongside, act outside the guidelines of the Code of Conduct, and where these acts result in malpractice or serious wrongdoing. The Protected Disclosures Act protects people who under the act are considered an ‘employee’ of the organisation. ‘Employee’ includes former employees, homeworkers, contractors, volunteers and people seconded to the organisation (Protected Disclosures Act, 2000). One of our roles as nurses is to act as advocates for our patients to ensure they receive the best possible care, are treated in a manner that upholds their rights, and ensure they receive the necessary care in a timely manner (Fry Johnstone, 2008). The Protected Disclosures Act, 2000, provides security, protection and appropriate support to an employee who needs to make a complaint of serious wrong-doing against their employer (Office of the Ombudsmen, 2014). The Protected Disclosures Act facilitates the disclosure and investigation of matters of serious wrong-doing in, or by an organisation, and protects employees who make these disclosures s5(ab). Employees have the right to have their confidentiality upheld during the process and are protected from employers who may try to counter-claim or take legal proceedings against the employee who has lodged a disclosure s19. The act aims to focus on serious wrong-doings (outlined in the interpretation section s3), including misuse of funds, acts or omissions which cause a risk to public health, public safety or the environment, any action that is unlawful, or acts which may be construed as being oppressive, discriminatory, and grossly negligent or constitute gross mismanagement (Protected Disclosures Act, 2000). Between 1999 and 2009 studies conducted in the US, UK and Australia found that between 4% and 16% of patients suffer from some kind of harm (including permanent disability or death) as a result of adverse events occurring while they are in the hospital (Brennan et al 1991; Department of Health 2000; Kohn et al 2000; Johnstone, 2009). Between 2004 and 2014 the New Zealand Health Practitioners Disciplinary Tribunals (2015) received charges against 344 health professionals most of whom were convicted of professional malpractice. While many organisations have policies and systems to prevent and detect serious wrongdoing, the people who work within an organisation may sometimes be in the best position to detect problems. Employee witnesses can provide a start to a serious investigation (State Services Commission, 2014). In a nursing setting, where there are high pressures on staff, accidents can happen and are usually dealt with promptly. The Protected Disclosures Act can be used in matters which are sensitive in nature and result in serious malpractice. While advocacy for patients, in nurses, is a part of their duties, in many cases when the need arises for advocacy, it can be difficult for the nurse to act. Rest (1984) discusses a process called moral reasoning which is applicable here. Moral sensitivity speaks to our awareness of how our actions affect others. Moral judgement relates to weighing our actions against that sensitivity. Moral motivation explains how we weigh some values more than others, while moral character is what provides the strength for an individual to carry out a moral action. When a person commits a serious wrongdoing, they are making a decision (moral motivation) that puts their values for time or money, for example, higher than their need for patients rights. If a nurse se es these acts and advocates for the patient under the Protected Disclosures Act, this too is moral motivation, with different values. It is for this purpose that the Protected Disclosures Act is aligned closely with the Ombudsmen Act, 1975, the Human Rights Act, 1993 and the Employment Relations Act, 2000. Under the Ombudsmen Act (1975), an ombudsmen may provide information and guidance to an employee on any matters concerning a protected disclosure; advise on what kinds of disclosures are covered as well as how and who to make a disclosure too, and ensure that no civil, criminal or disciplinary proceedings can be taken against a person for making a protected disclosure, or for referring one to the appropriate authority. It is unlawful under the Human Rights Act, 1993 to treat people who have made a complaint less favourably than other staff, in any way. The Act also states that an employee who suffers from retaliatory action from their employer after making a protected disclosure can file a personal grievance claim under the Employment Relations Act, 2000. This means if a person who makes a disclosure is dismissed (due to their disclosure), or suffers from victimisation or unfair treatment in the workplace, they are eligible to make a personal grievance complaint (Protected Disclosures Act, 2000; Office of the Ombudsmen, 2014; Ombudsmen Act, 1975; Human Rights Act, 1993; Employment Relations Act, 2000). Nurses and employees in general are encouraged to follow a chain of command when things go wrong, but that is not always the most effective course of action. A highly publicized example of this occurred in 1993, when Neil Pugmire, a registered psychiatric nurse, wrote in confidence to the then Minister of Health to outline concerns he had in regard to the Mental Health (Compulsory Assessment and Treatment) Act 1992. In his opinion it failed to provide compulsory detainment of patients who were deemed ‘very dangerous’. To support his claims Pugmire named a patient who was deemed at high risk of re-offending serious sexual crimes against young boys. The Minister responded that ‘mental health legislation should not be used to justify the detention of difficult or dangerous patients’ (Liddell, 1994, p. 14; Johnstone, 2009, p. 366). Pugmire, unhappy with this response, sent a copy of his letter to the then Leader of the Opposition, Mr Goff. Unknown to Mr Pugmire, Mr Goff released the letter publicly, with the patients name deleted. However the patients name was later leaked by other sources, effectively breaching the patient’s confidentiality. Mr Pugmire was suspended for ‘serious misconduct’ involving the unauthorised disclosure of confidential patient information’ (Liddell, 1994; Johnston, 2009). Mr Goff then presented the Whistleblower’s Protection Bill, in Parliament in June 1994. He is quoted as saying, â€Å"The reason for the Bill is that experience has shown quite clearly, that when a person tells the truth and speaks out in the public interest, but is without the protection of relevant legislation, the public tends to benefit from that action, but the victim invariably is the person who blows the whistle. Neil Pugmire †¦ is a man who felt the need, on moral and on professional grounds, to speak out to warn the community about the risk that he saw†¦ Ironically, the response from his employers when he spoke out was not to look at the substance of his concern, nor to listen to the message, but to shoot the messenger† (Goff, 1994). Neil Pugmire’s employer suspended him. Mr. Goff was successful and the bill was passed, initially as the Whistleblower’s Protection Bill, and later becoming the Protected Disclosures Act, 2000 (Goff, 1994). An example of how the Protected Disclosures Act works today, can be seen in an individual’s right to privacy. Everyone has the right to privacy and any violation of this where a person’s information had been made public would, under the Act, constitute a civil wrong. In a healthcare setting people’s information is protected by the Personal Information section of the Health Act, 1956 and has been developed from the Privacy Act, 1993 (Burgess, 2008; Health Act, 1956; Privacy Act, 1993). The Protected Disclosures Act serves as a foundation for proceeding against the organisation or person who disclosed personal information in a public forum and would protect the person who was making the complaint. In conclusion, this essay has outlined how valuable the Protected Disclosures Act, 2000, is. It ensures protection of employees in circumstances where serious wrong-doing results from breaches in the Code of Conduct or other malpractices. Statistics reflect the need for the Act and also the need for nurses to advocate and draw upon moral character. The Act has various ways to protect complainants and has been designed to be used in an accessible way, particularly involving the Ombudsmen. Neil Pugmire has been a prominent figure in ensuring that New Zealanders and health professionals alike have avenues to pursue when health practitioners need to be held accountable. The Act has particular relevance today, especially in cases involving the protection of a patient’s privacy.

The Coral Ecosystem And How It Is Changing :: essays research papers

Coral reefs are one of nature’s most magnificent creations, filled with thousands of unique and valuable plants and animals. More than one quarter of all marine animals is dependent on coral reefs. Coral reefs are also a source of food and income for millions of people too. The coral reef ecosystems benefit humans commercially, recreationally and environmentally. Because of the complex interconnections between coral reefs, mangrove forests, sea grass beds, and many other different plants and animals, coral is very susceptible to destruction. One small change in any of these things can affect mass quantities of coral. That is why it is important to educate people about coral and how complex of a species they really are. That is the purpose of this report, to educate you and make you aware of that complexity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Coral is often mistakenly identified as a rock, but in all actuality, it is an animal. The actual coral is composed of small animals called coral polyps. Most polyps are very small, although rare species can grow quite large. One coral branch or mound is composed of thousands of polyps. These thousands of polyps are called a coral colony. Polyps are nocturnal and stay inside their skeletons during the day. However, at night they can be seen when they stick their tentacles out to feed. Corals reproduce in many different ways. Some species are hermaphrodites, and produce both sperm and eggs, and some are single sexed organisms. They can reproduce both sexually or asexually. In most species, the egg and sperm are released into the water and random fertilization occurs. This is called coral spawning. The larva is attracted to the light and swims to the surface of the water where it remains for weeks. If the larva can survive without being eaten by predators, it will sink back to the bottom of the ocean floor. Hear it will attach itself to a hard substrate and will grow into a coral polyp. At this point, the coral polyp begins to reproduce asexually. As new polyps are built and added a colony develops. Eventually the coral colony matures and begins to reproduce sexually again, adding to the ever-continual cycle of life. One of the most amazing aspects of coral reproduction is that of mass coral spawning. In many parts of the world, on the same night of the year, every coral will spawn at the same time.

Deformed Digital Evolution Essay -- Technology Technological Papers

Deformed Digital Evolution Modernist visual form has substantially influenced the digital world; however, the digital world of today has been more prominently influenced by the sequential technological growth and the ever-changing aesthetic tastes of our diverse society. These conditions can further be described as mankind’s drive for efficiency and the contrasting effects of people desiring to be different or to stand out. In this essay, an attempt is made to show how the accomplishments of the late Victorian era, regardless of how closely their lineages seem to be linked, are themselves simply steps in the timeline of progress and are really invalid to use as the true â€Å"producer† of the modern digital world. The time period in and around the beginning of the twentieth century, according to Manovich, was the greatest time of pioneering and cultivating new techniques. Looking retroactively on the 1920’s from the viewpoint of today we realize that the key artistic innovations of the 1920s were all done in relation to what was then the â€Å"new media†: photography, film, new architectural and new printing technologies At the time, these were truly new media and groundbreaking techniques; additional terminology had to be developed in order to efficiently use and refer to them. The â€Å"new media† and its divisions were all obviously visually oriented. Manovich continues his discussion with referrals to the techniques and artful achievement that followed in the wake of the â€Å"new media† mentioned above. These â€Å"key modern visual communication techniques†1 included â€Å"photo and film montage, collage, classical film language, surrealism, the use of sex appeal in advertisements, modern graphic design, and modern typography.†1 ... ...ld that be reasonable? Continuing on with the evolutional tracking of the computer, we can restate the fact that the keyboard was bred from the invention of the typewriter. The typewriter itself can even be traced back to its origin, the printing press. In the end, almost every link in the evolutionary ladder of today’s digital world can be expressed as an adaptation or modification of the forerunning products. Though it is with reasonably considerable measures that Manovich makes all of his connections of the digital world as it applied to constructivist times, it is truly beyond anyone’s ability to figure out what the construction of the modern digital world is the product of. Far too many people have had their say in its creation. How many of those involved felt as though they were copying the Soviet Constructivist techniques and applying them to today?

Nature good or bad

This is partly because human nature can e regarded as both a source of norms of conduct or ways of life, as well as presenting obstacles or constraints on living a good life. The complex implications of such questions are also dealt with in art and literature, while the multiple branches of the Humanities together form an important domain of Inquiry Into human nature, and the question of what It Is to be human. Is It good or evil? The nature of humankind has been explored endlessly, with no definitive answers. What people believe the nature of humans to be is a very personal belief.That belief s shaped by the religion they follow, the culture they grew up in, and by their life experiences. What people believe has a large elm[act on the way they live their lives. It Is the pylons of this writer that people are Inherently good. This writer's pylons that people are Inherently good has developed gradually over time. One reason for this viewpoint is the fact that I believe we are all crea ted in God's image by God to serve him. If that is truly the case, then I feel that people would be inherently good, as God is. It is this writer's belief that God would not create someone who was inherently evil.People do sin, and some people could even be considered ‘evil,' but overall I feel that most people do try and lead a good life by being kind to others and helping those In need. Another reason for my belief Is the culture that I have grown up in. This may seem strange, since many people complain that our society is too filled with violence and other ‘bad' things. However, the very presence of such arguments about our society shows this writer that most people do not find violence at violent programming or acts, society tells people what it rely values: love and peace.If violence did not bother people, then there would not be the debate that exists today. Therefore, the belief that people are inherently good is supported by the culture that I grew up in. The exp eriences that one has throughout their life also shape their belief. In my life, I have had many experiences that reinforce my belief that people are inherently good. I have seen people unselfishly helping others in many circumstances. Many people give blood to save some stranger they will never meet.A woman Just donated part of her liver to a young girl she did not know so that the girl could live. Others donate millions to feed starving children , donate their time to teach people the bible so they could have a better life. These people undergo pain to help others; with no reward for themselves other than knowing they did a good thing. When people have tragedy strike them, the community will surround them with support. One example was the earthquake in 2010 that destroyed my country people came from almost every where to help with many different things, from food to clothing to shelter.In daily life, one can usually find many examples of people helping people, I my self donate my time regularly my time to teach the bible o others to help them bring changes it sir lives and I know more than 9 millions are doing the same thing, and this has been an important factor in shaping my belief. If people were not good, then I do not feel that one would be able to find these things occurring with such frequency. But why are we in that situation where we some times have a tendency of doing ABA things? What the scientist think?SCIENTISTS are hard at work to try to find genetic causes for alcoholism, homosexuality, promiscuity, violence, other aberrant behavior, and even for death itself. Would it not e a relief to find that we are not responsible for our actions but are merely victims of biology? It is human nature to blame someone or something else for our errors. If the genes are to blame, scientists hold out the possibility of changing them, eliminating undesirable traits through genetic engineering. The recent success in mapping the entire human genome has given such aspirations new impetus.This scenario, however, is based on the premise that our genetic endowment is, indeed, the villain responsible for all our sins and errors. Have the scientific detectives found enough evidence to make a case against our genes? Obviously, the answer will profoundly affect how we see ourselves and our future. Before examining the evidence, though, a look at mankind's origin will prove enlightening. How It All Started Most people are familiar with, or at least have heard of, the account about the fall of the first human pair, Adam and Eve, in the garden of Eden.Were they made with some intrinsic defect in the genes right from the start, a sort of design flaw that predisposed them to sin and disobedience? Their Creator, Jehovah God, whose works are all perfect, proclaimed that his crowning earthly creation was â€Å"very DOD. † (Genesis 1 :31; Deuteron 32:4) As further evidence of his satisfaction with his work, he gave the first couple his blessing and i nstructed them to be fruitful, to fill the earth with human creatures, and to take charge of his earthly creation?hardly the actions of someone uncertain of his handiwork. ?Genesis 1:28.Regarding the creation of the first human pair, the Bible tells us: â€Å"God proceeded to create the man in his image, in God's image he created him; male and female he created in physical appearance, for â€Å"God is a Spirit. † Noon 4:24) Rather, it means that human returns were endowed with godly qualities and a sense of morality, a conscience. (Romans 2:14, 15) They were also free moral agents, capable of weighing a matter and deciding on the action to take. However, our first parents were not left without guidelines. Rather, they were warned of the consequences of wrongdoing. Genesis 2:17) So the evidence indicates that when Adam was faced with a moral decision, he chose to do what to him seemed expedient or advantageous at the time. He followed his wife in her wrongdoing instead of con sidering his relationship with his Creator or the long-term effects of his action. He also tried later to shift the blame to Jehovah, saying that the wife He had provided misled him. ?Genesis 3:6, 12; 1 Timothy 2:14. God's response to the sin of Adam and Eve is revealing. He did not try to correct some ‘design flaw' in their genes.Rather, he carried out what he told them would be the consequences of their actions, which led to their eventual death. (Genesis 3:17-19) This early history sheds much light on the nature of human behavior. The Evidence Against Biology For a long time, scientists have been tackling the monumental task of finding genetic causes and cures for human pathology and behavior. After ten years of work by six teams of researchers, the gene linked to Huntington disease was isolated, although the researchers have no idea how the gene causes the disease.However, reporting on this research, Scientific American quoted Harvard biologist Even Balkan, who said that i t would be â€Å"almost infinitely harder to discover genes for behavioral disorders. † In fact, research attempting to link specific genes to human behavior has been unsuccessful. For instance, in Psychology Today, a report on efforts to find genetic causes for depression states: â€Å"Epidemiological data on the major mental illnesses make it clear that they can't be reduced to purely genetic causes. The report gives an example: â€Å"Americans born before 1905 had a 1 percent rate of depression by age 75. Among Americans born a half century later, 6 percent become depressed by age 24! † It thus concludes that only external or social factors can bring about such dramatic changes in such a short time. What do these and numerous other studies tell us? While genes may play a role in shaping our personalities, there clearly are other influences. A major factor is our environment, which has undergone addict changes in modern times.Concerning what today's youth are expose d to in popular entertainment, the book Boys Will Be Boys observes that it is unlikely that children will develop sound moral principles when they â€Å"grow up watching tens of thousands of hours of TV shows and films in which people are assaulted, shot, stabbed, disemboweled, chopped up, skinned, or dismembered, when children grow up listening to music which glorifies rape, suicide, drugs, alcohol, and bigotry. † Clearly, Satan, â€Å"the ruler of this world,† has shaped an environment that caters to man's baser desires. And who can deny the powerful influence that such an environment exerts on all of us? ?John 12:31; Ephesians 6:12; Revelation 12:9, 12. The Root of Mankind's Trouble As we have already seen, mankind's problems started when the first human pair sinned. The result? While generations of Dam's offspring are not responsible for Dam's sin, they nonetheless are all born with sin, imperfection, and death as their entered into the world and death through sin, and thus death spread to all men because they had all sinned. â€Å"?Romans 5:12. Man's imperfection puts him at a decided disadvantage. But that does not absolve him of all moral responsibility.The Bible shows that those who put faith in Jehovah provision for life and conform their lives to God's standards will have his approval. Out of his loving-kindness, Jehovah made a merciful provision to redeem mankind, to buy back, as it were, what Adam had lost. That provision is the ransom sacrifice of his perfect Son, Jesus Christ, who said: â€Å"God loved the world so much that he gave his only-begotten Son, in order that everyone exercising faith in him might not be destroyed but have everlasting life. â€Å"? John 3:16; 1 Corinthians 15:21, 22. The apostle Paul expressed his deep appreciation for this provision.He exclaimed: â€Å"Miserable man that I am! Who will rescue me from the body undergoing this death? Thanks to God through Jesus Christ our Lord! † (Romans 7:24, 25) Paul knew that if he succumbed to sin out of weakness, he could ask God's forgiveness on the basis of the ransom sacrifice of Jesus Christ. * As in the first century, today many who formerly led very bad lives or whose situation seemed hopeless have come to an accurate knowledge of Bible truth, made the necessary changes, and come in line for God's blessing. The changes they had to cake were not easy, and many still have to contend with harmful tendencies.But with God's help, they are able to maintain integrity and find Joy in serving him. (Philippians 4:13) we have in this society many example of people who started in a way with a bad life but turn around to do good things , have a complete change in their lives in order to please God or to have a better life for them self. Therefore Wearer Responsible Trying to pin the entire blame for our misconduct on our genes simply does not work. Rather than helping us to solve or overcome our problems, notes Psychology Today, ongoing so â⠂¬Å"may be teaching us a helplessness that is at the root of many of our problems.Instead of reducing the incidence of these problems, this seems to have fueled their growth. † It is true that we must contend with major adverse forces, including our own sinful tendencies and Satin's efforts to distract us from obeying God. (1 Peter 5:8) It is also true that our genes may influence us in one way or another. But we are surely not helpless. True Christians have powerful allies? Jehovah, Jesus Christ, God's holy spirit, his Word the Bible, and the Christian negotiation.Therefore the way one view the nature of human beings is very important as it shapes the way they look at their world. In this case, I must disagree with the â€Å"Theory that say people were born evil. † as I feel that people are inherently good. Most people will choose to be good over evil, and will help their fellow human beings without asking what they are to get from their actions. While there is evil in the world, it is the exception to the norm, and overall it is this my opinion that people can choose to be good . New world translation 2013 edition

Pepsi’s Needs Assessment Essay

Every organization at some point must design a training and development program to make sure that the managers and employees get the skills that it would take to perform their job. In order to design a training and development program, the organization must conduct a need assessment. â€Å"Need assessment is the process used to determine if training is necessary; it also is the first step in the Instructional System Design model (Raymond A. Noe). In order a training need assessment to be conducted, the training manager need to know the organization goals and objective, must know the jobs and its related tasks that need to be learned, must know the skills and competencies that are needed to perform the job, and also must know who will need to be trained. The need assessment has three levels of analysis such as organization analysis, individual analysis, and task analysis. Through this paper, there will be some discussion on the three levels of analysis and Pepsi’s training nee d assessment. Levels of Analysis  The first level of analysis is organization analysis. â€Å"Organizational analysis looks at the effectiveness of the organization and determines where training is needed and under what conditions it will be conducted (http://www. ispi. org/pdf/suggestedReading/Miller_Osinski. pdf). † Organizational analysis is identified by the environmental impact (OSHA, FMLA, etc. ), changing work force demographics, changing technology and automation, political trends such as sexual harassment and workplace violence, and how effective is the organization in meeting its goals. Information needed to conduct an organizational analysis can be found through; strategic plans, turnover rates, accident reports, customer complaints, mission statements, cost of materials, audits, change in equipment, annual reports, and employees attitudes and satisfaction. The second level of analysis is task analysis. â€Å"Task analysis provides data about a job or a group of jobs and the knowledge, skills, attitudes and abilities needed to achieve optimum performance (http://www. spi. org/pdf/suggestedReading/Miller_Osinski. pdf). † Organization can collect task analysis from job, KSA, performance standards, observe the job, perform the job, and conducting a job inventory questionnaire, and find out all the operating problems if any. Without the task analysis, the organization would not know what areas to train the employees in when it comes to their job performance. The third level of analysis is the individual analysis. Individual analysis analyzes how well the individual employee is doing the job and determines which employees need training and what kind (http://www. ispi. org/pdf/suggestedReading/Miller_Osinski. pdf). † There are many sources an organization can use to conduct an individual analysis. The first sources are performance evaluation, which shows areas of weakness. The second source is employee’s performance, which includes absenteeism, productivity, lateness, product waste, quality in work, and customer complaint. The third source is interviews. HR can simply have a talk with the managers, supervisor, and employees to what it is they need to learn more about. There so many other sources that can be used to conduct an individual analysis. After the individual analysis, the individual that needs training will be able to get the additional help that they needed. Pepsi’s Need Assessment â€Å"Pepsi believes that for their associated to thrive, they must continue to provide a supportive and empowering workplace. Which includes giving associates the opportunity to learn and grow professionally through regular training and proven career development tools, as well as the transfer of best practices, skills, knowledge and technology across the businesses (http://www. pepsico. com/Purpose/Talent-Sustainability/Associate-Learning-and-Development. html). † Pepsi offers their associate’s specific job training that is required in order for them to perform their job. Pepsi also offered associates the opportunity to attend professional conferences to enhance their skills. Pepsi’s year-long proprietary career process includes objective-setting, performance and development reviews, development action plans, midyear reviews and 360-degree evaluations—all supported by training and materials. Executive leadership training focuses on helping high-potential managers learn to be more effective leaders and to gain a broader perspective on our business. All associates are included in some form of the performance management process across PepsiCo (http://www. pepsico. com/Purpose/Talent-Sustainability/Associate-Learning-and-Development. html). Pepsi’s 360-degree feedback is used to focus on building self-awareness by linking to a best-in-class personality assessment inventory. Pepsi also uses survey to help them find ways for improvement. With Pepsi being all over the world, it is important to Pepsi that every employee conduct the survey. Pepsi recognize the concerns of their employees and they look for more and more ways to make sure employees and trained properly and become very successful within their career. Conclusions Implementing the needs assessment is very important for any organization. Needs assessment focus on the urgent training needs within and organization which is based off the information that is provided from the managers, supervisors, and employees. Pepsi being a billion dollar company knows the importance of need assessment. The three levels of analysis must be conducted or weighted out in ordered to have a successful training need assessment. At the end of the need assessment, you must evaluate the training and development program to make sure that all the needs were met.